A FEW DESIGN THEORIES TO PONDER

The contructivist learning theory suggests strategies for learners to become more cognitively active as opposed to just being behaviorally active. This type of learning facilitates the transfer of knowledge to problem solving, where what was learned is much more important than how much was learned. Constructivist learning activates cognitive processes as the learner selects information, organizes it and integrates it with existing knowledge. Mayer (1996) refers to this model as SOI - Selecting, Organizing and Integrating, something that I have been doing a lot of in the preparation of this paper. 

Instructional methods supporting this model should assist the learner in identifying useful information, understanding how it fits together and realizing how it relates to prior knowledge. To aid in the selection of material, there is also speculation that less, more focused information should be offered to the learner, as opposed to a broader or more detailed topic base. Organized procedural listings and/or graphical representations help learners create more coherent mental representations of the material, and priming familiar knowledge with a situation that is familiar or significant to the learner can promote better integration of material. Case studies and role-playing can also help with integration. In summary, the constructivist theory suggests a more hands-on, thinking approach to learning. 

Learning by doing and case-based reasoning (Schank, et al., 1994b), suggests that learners should learn "how to" rather than "know that" and deals with goal-based scenarios - another theory invoking higher order learning which transcends knowledge and comprehension. Goal-based scenarios provide a learn-by-doing situation in which students incorporate personal significance with knowledge and know how to apply it. In other words, the content and skills learned are necessary to achieve goals that are interesting and important to the learner. Case-based reasoning deals with how we remember and use our memories to solve new problems. In essence, goals that learners find interesting, important or even fun can through practice help develop skills that stay in long-term memory. This creates a founding information base that will eventually turn novices into experts. Schank also suggests that curriculum be changed to reflect three primary emphases -- communications, human relations and reasoning - the three types of knowledge competencies required to succeed in today’s society.

Knowledge learned in one context (such as school) is often not readily transferred to another (such as real-world situations). This is known as situated cognition (Lave, 1998). If knowledge is applied while it is being learned, then the learner will organize this knowledge and be able to apply it in other situations. 

The cognitive apprenticeship model (Collins, Brown, et al., 1991) allows learners to acquire knowledge during performance. It uses a technique called scaffolding to provide contextual supports to the learner, which can allow them to perform beyond their abilities.

The benefits of collaborative learning are well recognized for supporting active learning and deep processing of information. Learners are encouraged to articulate their ideas and thus consider, compare and validate what they know through dialogue and interaction with others. The gap between the learner’s actual developmental level and potential developmental level is narrowed through interaction with peers of greater capability. This is called the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). In addition to providing academic benefits, collaborative learning promotes the spirit of learning and increases competence in working with others, self-assurance and personal insight (McConnell, 1994). The intrinsic rewards of group cooperation may be enough, but some argue that extrinsic rewards may also be required to motivate learners. Collaborative learning is typically a central strategic component of online and other computer mediated instruction for effectively building knowledge and developing skills, and can link people together from anywhere in the world. 

Some of the key recurrent themes for a designer to remember and apply that are found in these and other popular instructional design deal with: 

• problem solving
• initiative and self direction
• learner or user centered environments
• real-world situations 
• hands-on, learn-by-doing approaches 
• active building of knowledge 
• personal involvement 
• peer collaboration 
• time to persevere
• guidance and support
• incorporating advanced technology

By becoming conscious of these types of theories, designers can better apply appropriate and effective learning strategies. I personally find it useful to view things from the learner’s perspective to understand how they would best like to learn the material. 

The promise of problem based learning and its many proponents sometimes assume that learners are self-directed, comfortable with the concept, and ready to take responsibility for their own learning. The onus is on designers, instructors and facilitators to create situations that motivate and encourage learners. Through my teaching experience in the Middle East, I’ve learned that implementing these types of strategies in cultures that are accustomed to traditional educational approaches (such as memorization, drill and practice) may be a challenge. Learners will need to be coached and motivated to operate in this type of environment or it will actually inhibit their learning (Corno & Randi, 1998).

In 1963 F.S. Keller (who was a colleague of the well-known behaviorist B.F. Skinner), developed a successful education plan in which lectures and demonstrations were motivational in nature, rather than typically providing critical information. Without motivation, there is no real desire to learn. Designers should take the affective domain into consideration at all times, and the user analysis information can help develop motivational strategies that engage the learner. 
 

CONTENT DESIGN

To develop content, a working understanding of the knowledge, skill and talent required in the areas of computer technology, graphics arts, animation, video, music and story telling are needed. Quite often, lack of competence in these areas will separate the amateurs from the professionals and may even cause a project to fail. This once again stresses the need for a multidisciplinary approach.

The user analysis data will ensure that the level and clarity of the content is appropriate to the learner’s needs. The content should have a logical flow and be "chunked" into digestible morsels. The use of flow charts can help with the visualization of this flow, and create a master outline.
 

MEDIA SELECTION AND DELIVERY ENVIRONMENTS

By now, serious thought will have been given to the selection of delivery and appropriate media. Quite often these days, a political directive to put courses online will be given, and it shows in 80% of the online course sites I visit. Instead of posting textual information online and calling it content, designers must consider the attributes of technologically rich learning environments, and become familiar with available technologies. 

The computer presents itself as an ideal tool for cognitive-based instruction by being able to supply appropriate responses to a learner’s input. Research indicates that computers and humans process information in a similar fashion (after all, we made them). A computer can receive, store and retrieve information in a way that creates the potential for true artificial intelligence.

Multimedia programs have traditionally been placed on CD ROM for delivery. The main advantages are in the way it can effectively deliver rich media content, as it is not restricted to bandwidth limitations like the Internet.
 

Web-based environments offer easy and immediate updating of information, and the means for synchronous and asynchronous collaboration between peers and tutors. Present bandwidth restrictions are being addressed through creative software and codecs, such as Real System’s RealAudio/Video Player and Macromedia’s Shockwave and Flash. Bandwidth and software will improve over the next decade and will remove restrictions on media rich delivery. Although many forms of CBT and multimedia delivery are still used, many educational institutions have focused their energy on using Internet technology. The way in which multimedia content is designed is quite different from online approaches, and warrants discussion in a future paper. It is interesting to note here that many multimedia programs can be streamed over the Internet with the appropriate browser plug-ins (i.e.- Hyperstudio, Director, Toolbook). So then, if a multimedia program is to be incorporated into an online environment, it must be designed accordingly, and must take the limitations of the Internet/Intranet into consideration. Various components such as audio and video may also have their own design strategies. For example, producing interactive video components may require expertise in many areas including script writing, directing, lighting, camera work, editing, animation/graphics and drama or acting. I have worked on many projects that incorporate design processes within design processes to accommodate the various media involved.

A common error is to select and use certain media because it is popular.  For example, inserting a streaming video clip out of context may do more harm than good.  As well as understanding the advantages and limitations of incorporating various media,  maintaining consistency with the delivery of information throughout a program is critical.

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT COMPONENTS

To create an effective (online) learning environment, the designer must ensure that all of the necessary components are in place:

Tutor
The tutor's role has shifted from the ‘sage on the stage’ to the ‘guide on the side’. The instructor may even become a collaborative learner. This does not suggest that the instructor's role have become diminished. The tutor can also ensure that effective knowledge transfer is taking place from the curriculum to the learner through the technology and activities.

Monitor
Something has to ensure that knowledge transfer is taking place. This could be the role of the instructor, self-directed learner(s) or even a software program.

Fellow Learners
All the benefits of collaborative learning can be realized with adequate communication between peers. Once again, this may include tutors as peers. Human collaboration can also be simulated through artificial intelligence.

Learning Material
The learning material can take on many forms, from text and textual representations to simulations, models and multimedia. Problem-based environments can also be considered learning material.

External Information Sources
Additional material outside of the learning material can include databases, hyperlinks to various resources and printed material.

Tools
Any hardware, software or other factor not included in the learning material that aids the learning process can be considered a tool.

Establishing the specific components of an online learning environment will bring everything together. Most online tools (i.e. - WebCT, Blackboard) incorporate some sort of template for the designer, where the functionality and feel is already laid out in the structure. Most good tools will incorporate the following:

• Student login - ID
• Student data - marks, tracking 
• Personal student development areas - home pages, resources 
• Quizzes and tests with automatic grading
• Content templates
• Bulletin board
• Calendar 
• Threaded discussion areas - synchronous and non-synchronous
• Database integration
• Electronic real time white board 
• Media component support - audio, video, simulations and multimedia (i.e. - Toolbook)
• Icons and other images

What these tools have done is made it much easier for individuals to develop online material. Below are few examples of companies offering templates and free server space for content experts to plug their courses into:

Moving beyond the world of templates however requires much more expertise, and the pay off is a richer, more unique and focused product, even though it may use a particular tool as its backbone. 
 

A WORD OR TWO ON THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH

When developing a project incorporating advanced learning technology, a more discovery type of approach may work well in an individualized setting, but serious projects will have to depend more on large groups and a structured environment. It is important that all team members realize their respective roles and contribute their expertise accordingly. A lack of situational awareness among team members can lead to severe consequences (Stout et al., 1996). 

A cooperative environment should be designed that allows a development team to discuss and realize what the overall goals and objectives are, and what tools and knowledge are available. Determining the types of declarative and procedural knowledge that are present or required within a group can help set parameters within the task domain. Intervention may be required to setup training strategies such as cross training, task practice or simulation to increase the awareness or skill levels within the group. 

Shared strategic mental models will enable participants to understand where they fit in and how they can contribute accordingly. Brainstorming sessions and the contextual assigning of roles would be a good way of beginning this process. A more defined coordination strategy to deal with the task(s) to be accomplished can then be developed with specific roles and responsibilities for each participant.

To be effective in adaptability and coordination of action, individuals will also need to identify and share knowledge about what other team members functions and role responsibilities are, and must know when and how to integrate with them. The design should create an ‘open’ environment, including mechanisms to encourage perpetual communication and feedback, which is necessary in order for individuals and the team to deal with problems in a that relate to procedures, actions or knowledge in a timely manner.

I believe that this type of approach will create a more focused and productive team, as each individual will have appropriately assigned tasks and responsibilities, and be aware of how (and when) they integrate with each other. 

Major concerns of a team learning situation could deal with the assigning of roles and the monitoring of progress. The human factor may create situations whereby personality differences and/or differences of opinion may hamper progress. The use of an ‘outside’ facilitator may overcome these potential problems, and help to keep the team process behavior and situational awareness on track. I've also found that the group does not always understand terms specific to various disciplines, and very generic approaches (such as the DACUM method) may help prevent a ‘Tower of Babel’ syndrome from occurring.
 

CONCLUSIONS

Finding solutions to modern learning requirements and decision making about analysis and especially design can be very complex tasks, and there are no simple solutions, or unified approaches. It's all about available resources and expertise, time, money and organizational or even personal choices. 

Understanding the difference between an instructional design process and instructional design theory clears away some of the mystery associated with designing instruction that incorporates advanced learning technology. The significance of selecting the proper theory for a given situation is also apparent.

In realizing all of this, there should be better appreciation for the multidisciplinary approach, not only in addressing a major project's many requirements, but in ultimately creating more effective modern instruction that takes better advantage of advanced technologies. Fortunately, continued advancements have created many tools to draw on for more individualized approaches. 

In the end, intuitive decisions may still have to be made, but after digesting this overview, I believe that these decisions may be much more informed ones.

One thing I've learned in preparing this issue is that the amount of research and material that has been produced in these areas is not directly proportional to improvements in education.  What I did find reassuring was the effort put forth in finding new and better ways to teach and learn.  I hope that this information will help others understand the big picture as well.

NEXT ISSUE - An in-depth report on Networked Learning  - COMING SOON.
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTED READINGS (partially complete)

Braden, R (1996) The case for linear Instructional Design and Development: a commentary on models, challenges and myths. Educational Technology. (36, 2) 5 - 23

Cannon-Bowers,J.A, Tannenbaum, S I, Salas, E. & Volpe, C E. (1995) -  Defining Competencies and Establishing Team Training Requirements. Team Effectiveness and Decision Making In Organizations. Jossey-Bass Publications. 333 - 380

Gagne, R.M. (1996) Learning Processes and Instruction. Training Research Journal, (Vol 1) Educational Technology Publications. 17 - 28

Hwang, A. S (1996) Positivist & Constructivist persuasions in Instructional development.  Instructional Science, (24) 343 - 356

Jonassen, D.H., Reeves, T.C., Hong, N, Harvey, D. & Peters, K. (1997) Concept Mapping as Cognitive 

Kintsch, E. (1993) Principles of Instruction from research on human cognition, In Spector, J M et al (eds) Automating Instructional Design: Concepts and Issues.  Educational Technology Press, Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey, 23 – 42 (chapter 2)

Learning and Assessment Tools. Journal of Interactive Learning Research. 8(3/4). 289-308.

Means, B. & Gott, 2. (1998) Cognitive Task Analysis as a Basis for Tutor Development: Articulating Abstract Knowledge Representations. Chapter 2 in Psotka, J., Massey, L.D. & Mutter, S.A. (eds) Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Lessons Learned, LEA, Hillside, N.J. 35 - 57

Peterson, R (1998) The Process of Training Needs Analysis. Chapter 1 in Training Needs Assessment (2nd Edition) Kogan Page. 5 - 20

Stout, R.J, Cannon-Bowers, J.A. and Salas, E (1996/7) The Role of Shared Mental Models in Developing Team Situational Awareness: Implications for Training. Training Research Journal, (Vol 2) 85 - 116