ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS FOR ADVANCED LEARNING TECHNOLOGY
SYSTEMS
Part 2 of 3
DESIGN
The design phase takes its input
from the specifications created in the analysis phase, and will output
a detailed description so that the program may be physically created. It
will also provide feedback for evaluation and revision of previous activities.
As well as being a creative process,
good design should also incorporate logical decision-making, and draw on
expertise in the areas of pedagogy, subject matter, presentational design
and technology. Once again, this may be non-linear process.
The design phase deals with the
following factors:
Instructional design theory
-
appropriate selection of instructional
design theories (derived from specifications in the analysis phase)
-
instructional objectives
-
evaluation methods
Learning environment
-
selecting and ensuring that the necessary
components are in place
Content design
-
content scope and outline or treatment
(derived from task analysis and/or goals)
-
media determinations
-
storyboard(s) and/or script(s) for
media components
Presentational design
-
interfaces, navigational elements,
layout, look and feel
-
artistic elements - graphic design
and/or other media design
-
template or prototype design
AN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS
IS NOT THE SAME AS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN THEORY
 |
If you are new to the world of
instructional science, welcome to the world of rocket science, where flow
charts, taxonomies and psychologies of all sorts abound. It is easy to
lose one’s self in the ozone here, and it is essential for designers to
understand the basic differences between instructional design, theories
of learning and instructional theory. |
An instructional design process
is the actual organized procedure or guide for creating instruction. The
analysis and design phases discussed in this paper are part of an instructional
design process, very similar to the model shown below. There are currently
about 40 popular process models. Most accomplish the same end, but may
conceptualize and organize the process differently.
Example of an instructional design
process
(Dick and Carey -- Systems
Approach to Design Instruction)
By applying a set of principles
such as those illustrated above, we have a system for producing effective,
efficient, and relevant instruction. Now that we have a process,
we require theories which can provide solutions to instructional problems.
Learning theories basically describe how learning takes place. The three
basic theories of learning are:
Behaviorism is based on changes
in behavior that can be observed and measured. People are conditioned to
react or respond without necessarily understanding why. ‘Drill and practice’
is a typical example of this type of learning.
Cognitivism is based on the thought
processes behind a behavior. This is a less mechanical approach where the
learner is more actively involved. The learner can understand the ‘how
and why’ of performing tasks, but may not be able to respond in a way that
is unique or optimal for him or the situation.
Constructivism is based on the
assumption that a learner constructs their own perspective of the world
through experiences and solving problems. Here learning is more student-centered,
and the tutor is more of a guide or coach. The learner will be much better
suited to deal with real life problems as he will learn to make judgments
about multiple interpretations. This may not the best choice if conformity
of a task is an issue (i.e.- using a standardized system database).
Some literature I've read refers to
humanism
as
a fourth popular theory of leaning. Humanism is very much like contructivism,
adding that significant learning incorporates creativity, initiative and
visualization. In this theory, learners rely on self-analysis, team building
and learner evaluation to foster wisdom, individual growth and development.
It seems to me that a little ‘new age’ philosophy may even be entering
into the scene here, and some may find this a little too ‘warm and fuzzy’
or even esoteric.
Instructional design theories are
based on learning theories, but describe events outside of the learner
that facilitate learning (Reigeluth, 1999). Instructional design theory
provides designers with knowledge that can be used as a guide to create
educational experiences with a higher probability of effectiveness.
Once again, there are many theories
and opinions on instructional design theory, and finding the relevancy
for a particular instructional problem or situation using this type of
information will not always guarantee success, but it will certainly increase
the chances of it occurring.
AN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN THEORY
PRIMER
 |
The paradigm of education that
most of us grew up with is now in transition, and is based on the concepts
of standardization inherited from the industrial age. This is well illustrated
in the popular Pink Floyd Music Video - "Just Another Brick in the Wall",
where a machine is cranking out automatons. Attitudes towards living (and
learning) have changed. Once popular sayings such as "life is a struggle"
and "nothing comes easy" are being replaced with ones like "life is meant
to be fun" and "the universe is abundant". Correlate these statements to
classroom settings in the 1950’s and 1990’s. |
| The information age has brought
us into an era where more specific, personalized and customized approaches
to everything are required, including education. Moving from a society
of conformity and compliance into an information-based one requires us
to have more diverse perspectives and individuality in order to solve increasingly
complex problems. Although still valid, the memorization and procedural
skill development techniques of the past alone cannot meet the modern demands
for higher levels of learning. Thus,
current educational practices are aimed at seeing that each individual’s
specific learning needs are met. This is accomplished by empowering learners
to actively build on their own knowledge base, rather than receive standardized
facts and information passively en mass as was done in the past. |
 |
 |
Mankind is now entering into the
knowledge age. Focusing on the context of information is the premise of
this age, as there is no present shortage of information today, just perhaps
a lack of understanding of what to do with it all. Moving from a data processing
era into one of wisdom building will require educational strategies that
create life long learners who possess the skills, knowledge and attitudes
to develop their own personal styles of more specific, practical learning. |
Our definition of instruction
now includes what is referred to as construction (Ferguson,
1992). Learning is becoming increasingly more ‘learner-centered’, and is
concerned with facilitating learners in developing initiative, carrying
out real-world tasks, setting their own goals and utilizing advanced technologies.
One indicator of change in the West has been a shift to decrease the number
of subjects and increase class period time, as standard curricular goals
and traditional time requirements are impediments to the immersion required
to tackle more real-world based problems (Scott, 1994). I was quite
surprised to learn that my son is only dealing with two subjects a day
in high school, whereas I had several 40-minute periods!
Most theorists have categorized
the different types of learning into three domains: cognitive (thinking),
affective (feeling) and psychomotor (physical activity). Higher-order learning
such as understanding, intellect and skills falls within the cognitive
domain. Included in this domain is metacognition, the ability to monitor,
contemplate and even change one’s own thought processes. Developing metacognition
is the gist of the knowledge age.
In 1956, Bloom and his colleagues
developed a hierarchical chart or taxonomy indicating the main types of
learning. He identified six levels within the cognitive domain. At the
lowest level, there is simple recall or recognition of facts. The mental
levels become increasingly more complex and at the highest level we find
evaluation. Although many taxonomic analyses of learning behavior have
been developed, Bloom’s has created a standard dialogue and is still popular
for identifying and creating educational objectives and activities to facilitate
better learning.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
| KNOWLEDGE |
learners working
at this level can remember and recall information ranging from concrete
to abstract
verbs: arrange, define, duplicate, label,
list memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce,
state |
| COMPREHENSION |
learners are able
to understand and make use of something communicated, and can translate,
interpret and extrapolate the communication
verbs: classify, describe, discuss,
explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate,
review, select |
| APPLICATION |
learners can apply
appropriate concepts or abstractions to a problem or situation even when
not prompted to do so
verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize,
employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve,
use, write |
| ANALYSIS |
learners can break
down the material into its parts and define the relationship between the
parts
verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate,
categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test |
| SYNTHESIS |
learners can create
a product, combining parts from previous experience and new material to
create a whole
verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose,
construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan,
prepare, propose, set up, write |
| EVALUATION |
learners make judgments
about the value of materials, ideas and so forth
verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach,
choose, compare, defend, estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select,
support, value, evaluate |
Adapted from Instructional
Design Theories and Models - Ver2, Reigulth, 1999
and WestEd Distance
Learning Resources, 1998
What taxonomies do in fact, is make
the designer think about how to optimize instruction with the organization,
dissemination and construction of knowledge. It would seem that higher
order learning where information is significant enough to the learner to
be placed into long term memory is an ultimate goal in teaching and learning.
This type of learning is associated with application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation. One way of planning effective education would be
to use the verb examples above that are associated with the various levels
of learning in creating performance objectives and tasks. Taxonomies can
also assist with the selection of learning technology and appropriate media.
There are other popular taxonomies,
such as Shuell’s 12 learning functions (1992), or those from Gagne (1985),
Merrill (1983) or Ausubel (1968) which help to develop instruction that
evokes higher order learning skills.
Once again, there are many theories
and opinions on instructional design theory, and finding the relevancy
for a particular instructional problem or situation using this type of
information will not always guarantee success, but it will certainly increase
the chances of it occurring.
It has been said that good instructors
and designers can intuitively apply good instruction design theory based
on their tacit knowledge and gut reaction. Although many designers
may have developed their own brand of functional instructional design
strategies, all show respect and appreciation for established research
and design theories. I have chosen some of the more current and popular
trends in instructional design and have summarized them in part 3 for easy
digestion.
 
last
page next page
|
